Nutritional composition and antioxidant capacity of Urtica hyperborea: A phytofood of Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25081/jp.2023.v15.8607Keywords:
Antioxidant activity, Flavonoid, Food security, Mineral contents, Polyphenolic compounds, Total phenolic contentAbstract
Urtica hyperborea Jacquem. ex Wedd., a perennial plant of Urticaceae family is considered as a wild vegetable in the mountainous region of Ladakh. Due to its application in many forms of traditional culinary in every household during the harsh winter season, the plant ensures the food security. However, the nutritional composition and phytochemical analysis of U. hyperborea responsible for these beneficial features have not been explored widely. The present study aims to determine the nutritional composition (e.g., macromolecules, pigments, minerals, phenolics and flavonoid contents), antioxidant activity and the phytochemical analysis of this plant species present in Ladakh, India. The radical scavenging and antioxidant potential of the plant were evaluated by assays like 2,2‒diphenyl‒1‒picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl (ºOH), and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) for different extracts prepared in water, methanol, ethyl acetate, and petroleum ether. Macromolecules such as protein, carbohydrate, total phenolic and flavonoid contents in U. hyperborea were found to be 62.28±6.67, 170.80±3.98, 24.47±0.39 and 5.43±0.97 mg g-1, respectively. Similarly, dried powder of U. hyperborea was found to be rich in different mineral contents such as potassium, magnesium, sodium, manganese, zinc and iron. Among the various solvents used for exploring scavenging and antioxidant potential, aqueous extracts showed highest activity with 79.2% in DPPH assay as compared to other extracts. Similar trend was observed for other assays where aqueous extracts exhibited higher activity followed by methanolic, ethyl acetate and petroleum ether extracts. Significant positive linear correlations were observed between the radical scavenging/antioxidant activity of aqueous extracts and their content of phenolic/flavonoid compounds. The identification of phenolic compounds such as coumarin, quercetin, and ferulic acid confirm the antioxidative nature of the plant. Overall, rich macromolecule and mineral contents, as well as higher radical scavenging/antioxidant activities in aqueous extracts of U. hyperborea revealed that the plant has significant potential to be utilized as a phytofood source in harsh environmental conditions.
Downloads
References
Aadil, R. M., Roobab, U., Sahar, A., Rahman, U., & Khalil, A. A. (2019). Functionality of bioactive nutrients in beverages. In A. M. Grumezescu & A. M. Holban (Eds.), Nutrients in Beverages (Vol. 12, pp. 237-276). Massachusetts, US: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2017-0-02386-8
Abdel-Aal, E.-S. M., Hucl, P., & Rabalski, I. (2018). Compositional and antioxidant properties of anthocyanin-rich products prepared from purple wheat. Food Chemistry, 254, 13-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.01.170
Abubakar, A. R., & Haque, M. (2020). Preparation of medicinal plants: Basic extraction and fractionation procedures for experimental purposes. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 12(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4103/jpbs.JPBS_175_19
Afolayan, A. J., & Jimoh, F. O. (2009). Nutritional quality of some wild leafy vegetables in South Africa. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 60(5), 424-431. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637480701777928
Angchok, D., Dwivedi, S. K., & Ahmed, Z. (2009). Traditional foods and beverages of Ladakh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 8(4), 51-558.
Angmo, K., Adhikari, B. S., & Rawat, G. S. (2012). Changing aspects of traditional healthcare system in Western Ladakh, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 143(2), 621-630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.017
Ballabh, B., & Pullaiah, T. (2017). Ethnic food plants and ethnic food preparation in western and central Himalayas. In Ethnobotany of India (Vol. 4, pp 39-113) New Jersey, US: Apple Academic Press.
Batish, D. R., Singh, H. P., Setia, N., Kaur, S., & Kohli, R. K. (2006). Chemical composition and phytotoxicity of volatile essential oil from intact and fallen leaves of Eucalyptus citriodora. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, 61(7-8), 465-471. https://doi.org/10.1515/znc-2006-7-801
Blois, M. S. (1958). Antioxidant determinations by the use of a stable free radical. Nature, 181, 1199-1200. https://doi.org/10.1038/1811199a0
Boesi, A. (2014). Traditional knowledge of wild food plants in a few Tibetan communities. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10, 75. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-75
Borges, F., Roleira, F., Milhazes, N., Santana, L., & Uriarte, E. (2005). Simple coumarins and analogues in medicinal chemistry: occurrence, synthesis and biological activity. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 12(8), 887-916. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867053507315
Boubaker, J., Bhouri, W., Sghaier, M. B., Ghedira, K., Franca, M. G. D., & Chekir‐Ghedira, L. (2011). Ethyl acetate extract and its major constituent, isorhamnetin 3‐O‐rutinoside, from Nitraria retusa leaves, promote apoptosis of human myelogenous erythroleukaemia cells. Cell Proliferation, 44(5), 453-461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2184.2011.00772.x
Bradford, M. M. (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry, 72(1-2), 248-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(76)90527-3
Coy-Barrera, E. (2020). Analysis of betalains (betacyanins and betaxanthins). In A. S. Silva, S. F. Nabavi, M. Saeedi & S. M. Nabavi (Eds.), Recent Advances in Natural Products Analysis (pp. 593-619) Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816455-6.00017-2
Dasila, K., & Singh, M. (2022). Bioactive compounds and biological activities of Elaegnus latifolia L.: An underutilized fruit of North-East Himalaya, India. South African Journal of Botany, 145, 177-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2021.07.020
El-Aziz, T. A. A., Mohamed, R. H., Pasha, H. F., & Abdel-Aziz, H. R. (2012). Catechin protects against oxidative stress and inflammatory-mediated cardiotoxicity in adriamycin-treated rats. Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 12, 233-240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10238-011-0165-2
Gong, G., Guan, Y.-Y., Zhang, Z.-L., Rahman, K., Wang, S.-J., Zhou, S., Luan, X., & Zhang, H. (2020). Isorhamnetin: A review of pharmacological effects. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 128, 110301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110301
Han, S., Wei, R., Han, D., Zhu, J., Luo, W., Ao, W., & Zhong, G. (2020). Hypouricemic effects of extracts from Urtica hyperborea Jacq. ex Wedd. in hyperuricemia mice through XOD, URAT1, and OAT1. BioMed Research International, 2020, 2968135. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2968135
Harris, G. K., & Marshall, M. R. (2017). Ash analysis. In S. S. Nielsen (Eds.), Food Analysis (pp. 287-297) Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45776-5_16
Hiscox, J. D., & Israelstam, G. F. (1979). A method for the extraction of chlorophyll from leaf tissue without maceration. Canadian Journal of Botany, 57(12), 1332-1334. https://doi.org/10.1139/b79-163
Hodroj, M. H., Al Bast, N. A. H., Taleb, R. I., Borjac, J., & Rizk, S. (2020). Nettle tea inhibits growth of acute myeloid leukemia cells in vitro by promoting apoptosis. Nutrients, 12(9), 2629. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092629
Hua, F., Zhou, P., Liu, P.-P., & Bao, G.-H. (2021). Rat plasma protein binding of kaempferol‐3‐O‐rutinoside from Lu’an GuaPian tea and its anti‐inflammatory mechanism for cardiovascular protection. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 45(7), e13749. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13749
Iacopini, P., Baldi, M., Storchi, P., & Sebastiani, L. (2008). Catechin, epicatechin, quercetin, rutin and resveratrol in red grape: Content, in vitro antioxidant activity and interactions. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 21(8), 589-598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2008.03.011
Joshi, B. C., Mukhija, M., & Kalia, A. N. (2014). Pharmacognostical review of Urtica dioica L. International Journal of Green Pharmacy, 8(4), 201-209.
Kaur, T., Hussain, K., Koul, S., Vishwakarma, R., & Vyas, D. (2013). Evaluation of nutritional and antioxidant status of Lepidium latifolium Linn.: a novel phytofood from Ladakh. PLoS One, 8(8), e69112. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069112
Kregiel, D., Pawlikowska, E., & Antolak, H. (2018). Urtica spp.: Ordinary plants with extraordinary properties. Molecules, 23(7), 1664. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23071664
Kugler, F., Graneis, S., Stintzing, F. C., & Carle, R. (2007). Studies on betaxanthin profiles of vegetables and fruits from the Chenopodiaceae and Cactaceae. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, 62, 311-318. https://doi.org/10.1515/znc-2007-5-601
Lamo, K., Akbar, P. I., & Mir, M. S. (2012). Underexplored and underutilized traditional vegetables of cold arid Ladakh region of India. Vegetos, 25(1), 271-273.
Lee, J., & Scagel, C. F. (2009). Chicoric acid found in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves. Food Chemistry, 115(2), 650-656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.12.075
Lesjak, M., Beara, I., Simin, N., Pintać, D., Majkic, T., Bekvalac, K., Orčić, D., & Mimica-Dukić, N. (2018). Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of quercetin and its derivatives. Journal of Functional Foods, 40, 68-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2017.10.047
Lizcano, L. J., Bakkali, F., Ruiz-Larrea, M. B., & Ruiz-Sanz, J. I. (2010). Antioxidant activity and polyphenol content of aqueous extracts from Colombian Amazonian plants with medicinal use. Food Chemistry, 119(4), 1566-1570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.043
López-Lázaro, M. (2009). Distribution and biological activities of the flavonoid luteolin. Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry, 9(1), 31-59. https://doi.org/10.2174/138955709787001712
Mahlangeni, N. T., Moodley, R., & Jonnalagadda, S. B. (2016). The distribution of macronutrients, anti-nutrients and essential elements in nettles, Laportea peduncularis susp. peduncularis (River nettle) and Urtica dioica (Stinging nettle). Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 51(3), 160-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2015.1108806
Marchese, A., Arciola, C. R., Barbieri, R., Silva, A. S., Nabavi, S. F., Sokeng, A. J. T., Izadi, M., Jafari, N. J., Suntar, I., Daglia, M., & Nabavi, S. M. (2017). Update on monoterpenes as antimicrobial agents: A particular focus on p-cymene. Materials, 10(8), 947. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10080947
Masella, R., Santangelo, C., D’archivio, M., LiVolti, G., Giovannini, C., & Galvano, F. (2012). Protocatechuic acid and human disease prevention: biological activities and molecular mechanisms. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 19(18), 2901-2917. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986712800672102
Meda, A., Lamien, C. E., Romito, M., Millogo, J., & Nacoulma, O. G. (2005). Determination of the total phenolic, flavonoid and proline contents in Burkina Fasan honey, as well as their radical scavenging activity. Food Chemistry, 91(3), 571-577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.10.006
Mishra, B., Priyadarsini, K. I., Kumar, M. S., Unnikrishnan, M. K., & Mohan, H. (2003). Effect of O-glycosilation on the antioxidant activity and free radical reactions of a plant flavonoid, chrysoeriol. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 11(13), 2677-2685. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-0896(03)00232-3
Nagar, D. P., & Jain, A. K. (2016). Edible plants of Ladakh used in ethnic food. In A. k. Jain (Eds.), Indian Ethnobotany: Emerging Trends (pp. 84-91). Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publishers.
Ngomle, S., Eko, R., Kanwat, M., Kalita, H., & Moyon, N. N. (2020). Eating from the wild: an insight into the indigenous wild edible plants consumed by the Digaru Mishmi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 19(2), 360-369.
Oyaizu, M. (1986). Studies on products of browning reaction antioxidative activities of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine. The Japanese Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, 44(6), 307-315. https://doi.org/10.5264/eiyogakuzashi.44.307
Pandi, A., & Kalappan, V. M. (2021). Pharmacological and therapeutic applications of Sinapic acid - An updated review. Molecular Biology Reports, 48, 3733-3745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-021-06367-0
Paulauskienė, A., Tarasevičienė, Ž., & Laukagalis, V. (2021). Influence of harvesting time on the chemical composition of wild stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.). Plants, 10(4), 686. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040686
Pei, K., Ou, J., Huang, J., & Ou, S. (2016). p‐Coumaric acid and its conjugates: dietary sources, pharmacokinetic properties and biological activities. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 96(9), 2952-2962. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.7578
Peng, Y., Sun, Q., & Park, Y. (2019). The bioactive effects of chicoric acid as a functional food ingredient. Journal of Medicinal Food, 22(7), 645-652. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2018.0211
Qayyum, R., Qamar, H. M.-U.-D., Khan, S., Salma, U., Khan, T., & Shah, A. J. (2016). Mechanisms underlying the antihypertensive properties of Urtica dioica. Journal of Translational Medicine, 14, 254. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-016-1017-3
Radha, Kumar, M., Puri, S., Pundir, A., Bangar, S. P., Changan, S., Choudhary, P., Parameswari, E., Alhariri, A., Samota, M. K., Damale, R. D., Singh, S., Berwal., M. K., Dhumal, S., Bhoite, A. G., Senapathy, M., Sharma, A., Bhushan, B., & Mekhemar, M. (2021). Evaluation of nutritional, phytochemical, and mineral composition of selected medicinal plants for therapeutic uses from cold desert of Western Himalaya. Plants, 10(7), 1429. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10071429
Rana, D., Bhatt, A., & Lal, B. (2019). Ethnobotanical knowledge among the semi-pastoral Gujjar tribe in the high altitude (Adhwari’s) of Churah subdivision, district Chamba, Western Himalaya. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 15, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0286-3
Rana, J. C., Pradheep, K., Chaurasia, O. P., Sood, S., Sharma, R. M., Singh, A., & Negi, R. (2012). Genetic resources of wild edible plants and their uses among tribal communities of cold arid region of India. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 59, 135-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-011-9765-7
Rao, P. V., Kiran, S. D. V. S., Rohini, P., & Bhagyasree, P. (2017). Flavonoid: A review on Naringenin. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 6(5), 2778-2783.
Rawat, G., Bameta, A., & Gaur, A. K. (2020). Urtica dioica (Stinging Nettle): A pharmacologically important medicinal plant species of Himalayan region. International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 21(17), 49-58. https://doi.org/10.9734/irjpac/2020/v21i1730265
Ray, A., Ray, R., & Sreevidya, E. A. (2020). How many wild edible plants do we eat—their diversity, use, and implications for sustainable food system: an exploratory analysis in India. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4, 56. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00056
Roy, M., Sen, S., & Chakraborti, A. S. (2008). Action of pelargonidin on hyperglycemia and oxidative damage in diabetic rats: implication for glycation-induced hemoglobin modification. Life Sciences, 82(21-22), 1102-1110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2008.03.011
Ruch, R. J., Cheng, S.-J., & Klaunig, J. E. (1989). Prevention of cytotoxicity and inhibition of intercellular communication by antioxidant catechins isolated from Chinese green tea. Carcinogenesis, 10(6), 1003-1008. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/10.6.1003
Sadowska-Bartosz, I., & Bartosz, G. (2021). Biological properties and applications of betalains. Molecules, 26(9), 2520. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092520
Said, A. A. H., Otmani, I. S. E., Derfoufi, S., & Benmoussa, A. (2015). Highlights on nutritional and therapeutic value of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica). International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 7(10), 8-14.
Saklani, S., & Chandra, S. (2012). In vitro antimicrobial activity, nutritional profile and phytochemical screening of Garhwal Himalaya medicinal plant– Urtica dioica. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 3(1), 57-60.
Schoefs, B. (2002). Chlorophyll and carotenoid analysis in food products. Properties of the pigments and methods of analysis. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 13(11), 361-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(02)00182-6
Semwal, D. K., Semwal, R. B., Combrinck, S., & Viljoen, A. (2016). Myricetin: A dietary molecule with diverse biological activities. Nutrients, 8(2), 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8020090
Sidaoui, F., Belghith, S. I., Barth, D., Trabelsi-Ayadi, M., & Cherif, J. K. (2015). Study of Tunisian nettle leaves (Urtica dioica L.): mineral composition and antioxidant capacity of their extracts obtained by maceration and supercritical fluid extraction. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research, 7(4), 707-713.
Simkin, A. J., Schwartz, S. H., Auldridge, M., Taylor, M. G., & Klee, H. J. (2004). The tomato carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase-1 genes contribute to the formation of the flavor volatiles β‐ionone, pseudoionone, and geranylacetone. The Plant Journal, 40(6), 882-892. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2004.02263.x
Sindhi, V., Gupta, V., Sharma, K., Bhatnagar, S., Kumari, R., & Dhaka, N. (2013). Potential applications of antioxidants–A review. Journal of Pharmacy Research, 7(9), 828-835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jopr.2013.10.001
Singh, B., & Bedi, Y. S. (2018). Eating from raw wild plants in Himalaya: Traditional knowledge documentary on Sheena tribe in Kashmir. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources, 8(3), 269-275.
Stobiecka, A. (2015). Comparative study on the free radical scavenging mechanism exerted by geraniol and geranyl acetone using the combined experimental and theoretical approach. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 30(5), 399-409. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.3256
Su, R.-N. (2018). Research progress on medicinal plant of Urtica L. Chinese Traditional and Herbal Drugs, 24, 2722-2728.
Sundriyal, M., & Sundriya, R. C. (2004). Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: Nutritive values of selected species. Economic Botany, 55, 377-390. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02866561
Swain, T., & Hillis, W. E. (1959). The phenolic constituents of Prunus domestica. I.—The quantitative analysis of phenolic constituents. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 10(1), 63-68. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740100110
Testai, L., Chericoni, S., Calderone, V., Nencioni, G., Nieri, P., Morelli, I., & Martinotti, E. (2002). Cardiovascular effects of Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae) roots extracts: in vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 81(1), 105-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00055-7
Thakur, A., Singh, S., & Puri, S. (2020a). Exploration of wild edible plants used as food by Gaddis- a tribal community of the Western Himalaya. The Scientific World Journal, 2020, 6280153. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6280153
Thakur, M., Sharma, P. K., Asrani, R. K., Patil, R. D., & Gautam, H. (2020b). Traditional therapeutic uses of some important medicinal and aromatic plants of the tribal area of Lahaul valley of Himachal Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 19(4), 761-775. https://doi.org/10.56042/ijtk.v19i4.44520
Vajic, U.-J., Grujic-Milanovic, J., Miloradovic, Z., Jovovic, D., Ivanov, M., Karanovic, D., Savikin, K., Bugarski, B., & Mihailovic-Stanojevic, N. (2018). Urtica dioica L. leaf extract modulates blood pressure and oxidative stress in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Phytomedicine, 46, 39-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2018.04.037
Vattem, D. A., & Shetty, K. (2005). Biological functionality of ellagic acid: a review. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 29(3), 234-266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4514.2005.00031.x
Wang, Y., Tang, C., & Zhang, H. (2015). Hepatoprotective effects of kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside and kaempferol 3-O-glucoside from Carthamus tinctorius L. on CCl4-induced oxidative liver injury in mice. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 23(2), 310-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2014.10.002
Wenli, Y., Yaping, Z., & Bo, S. (2004). The radical scavenging activities of Radix puerariae isoflavonoids: A chemiluminescence study. Food Chemistry, 86(4), 525-529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.09.005
Wong, S. P., Leong, L. P., & Koh, J. H. W. (2006). Antioxidant activities of aqueous extracts of selected plants. Food Chemistry, 99(4), 775-783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.07.058
Zduńska, K., Dana, A., Kolodziejczak, A., & Rotsztejn, H. (2018). Antioxidant properties of ferulic acid and its possible application. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 31(6), 332-336. https://doi.org/10.1159/000491755
Zeng, K., Thompson, K. E., Yates, C. R., & Miller, D. D. (2009). Synthesis and biological evaluation of quinic acid derivatives as anti-inflammatory agents. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 19(18), 5458-5460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.07.096
Zhang, F., Zhang, Y., Yang, T., Ye, Z.-Q., Tian, J., Fang, H.-R., Han, J.-J., Wang, Z.-Z., & Li, X. (2019). Scopoletin suppresses activation of dendritic cells and pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inhibiting NF-κB signaling. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 10, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.00863
Zouari-Bouassida, K., Bardaa, S., Khimiri, M., Rebaii, T., Tounsi, S., Jlaiel, L., & Trigui, M. (2017). Exploring the Urtica dioica leaves hemostatic and wound-healing potential. BioMed Research International, 2017, 1047523. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1047523
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2023 Disket Zomba, Mushtaq Ahmad Dar, Rupali Jandrotia, Mansi Sharma, Rishikesh Singh, Shalinder Kaur, Daizy R. Batish
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
.