Herbal and spice extracts as antibacterial and anti-inflammatory adjuvants: Opportunities and limitations of artificial intelligence-assisted research

Abstract

Herbal and spice extracts contain bioactive compounds with antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities that may support but should not replace conventional antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory therapies. Polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, and organosulfur compounds have been linked to disruption of bacterial membranes, inhibition of enzyme activity, suppression of biofilm formation, interference with quorum sensing, and modulation of inflammatory signaling pathways. This review summarizes selected extracts and phytochemicals, emphasizing their potential role as adjuncts to antibiotics. Researchers often examine interactions between plant-based compounds and antibiotics using checkerboard assays and the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI). Synergy interpretation depends on experimental design and should be validated with additional assays. Various compounds, including curcumin, ginger components, garlic-derived sulfur substances, and flavonoids, have been shown to impact processes such as NF-κB activity, COX-2 and LOX expression, cytokine production, oxidative stress responses, and immune cell functions. However, translating these findings into clinical applications is complicated by variations in extract composition, the low bioavailability of certain compounds, insufficient pharmacokinetic data, potential toxicity at therapeutic levels, and interactions between herbs and medications. Moreover, artificial intelligence-driven analytical methods may help researchers pinpoint phytochemicals and combinations worth further investigation. Nonetheless, researchers must validate these predictions in independent laboratory settings. However, computational predictions and in vitro findings are hypothesis-generating, not clinical evidence. Progress will require authenticated, chemically characterized botanical materials; standardized susceptibility testing; rigorous safety evaluation; animal studies where appropriate; and adequately powered clinical trials.