The role of Zai pits and integrated soil fertility management options in improving crop productivity for smallholder farmers in the drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25081/jaa.2024.v10.7313Keywords:
Zai, ISFM, Small holder farmers, Mineral fertilizers, Sub-Saharan AfricaAbstract
The drylands of Africa are experiencing food insecurity due to prolonged drought and water scarcity which has a negative effect on crop production. In the drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa, many small holder farmers are experiencing low crop yields and economic returns as a result of poor soil fertility and water scarcity. This is because of the inappropriate soil and water conservation strategies used in the region. Zai pits have been used as a soil and water conservation strategy in the drylands of Africa in combination with integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) options to improve soil fertility, increase the overall crop yields and the economic returns. This review deals on the role of zai pits and integrated soil fertility management options in improving productivity for the small holder farmers in the drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa. Zai pits have been used to harvest water which ultimately improves soil moisture for crop production with the different fertility inputs applied in the pits for nutrient efficiency. To evaluate productivity and profitability in zai tillage system, yield, benefit cost ratio (BCR) and net benefits are used. In this study, different studies by researchers on the use of zai pits and integrated soil fertility management options have been discussed and this would be beneficial for other researchers who have interest in this field. Most studies have indicated that the zai pit technology is an important soil and water conservation strategy which in combination with the integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) options improves crop productivity in terms of yield and economic returns.
Downloads
References
Adamtey, N., Musyoka, M. W., Zundel, C., Cobo, J. G., Karanja, E., Fiaboe, K. K., Muriuki, A., Mucheru-Muna, M., Vanlauwe, B., Berset, E., Messmer, M. M., Gattinger, A., Bhullar, G. S., Cadisch, G., Fliessbach, A., Mäder, P., Niggli, U., & Foster, D. (2016). Productivity, profitability and partial nutrient balance in maize-based conventional and organic farming systems in Kenya. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 235, 61-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.10.001
Adimassu, Z., & Kessler, A. (2016). Factors affecting farmers’ coping and adaptation strategies to perceived trends of declining rainfall and crop productivity in the central Rift valley of Ethiopia. Environmental Systems Research, 5, 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-016-0065-2
AghaKouchak, A., Mirchi, A., Madani, K., Di Baldassarre, G., Nazemi, A., Alborzi, A., Anjileli, H., Azarderakhsh, M., Chiang, F., Hassanzadeh, E., Huning, L. S., Mallakpour, I., Martinez, A., Mazdiyasni, O., Moftakhari, H., Norouzi, H., Sadegh, M., Sadeqi, D., Van Loon, A. F., & Wanders, N. (2021). Anthropogenic drought: Definition, challenges, and opportunities. Reviews of Geophysics, 59(2), e2019RG000683. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019RG000683
Al-Kaisi, M. M., Elmore, R. W., Guzman, J. G., Hanna, H. M., Hart, C. E., Helmers, M. J., Hodgson, E.W., Lenssen, A.W., Mallarino, A.P., Robertson, A. E., & Sawyer, J. E. (2013). Drought impact on crop production and the soil environment: 2012 experiences from Iowa. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 68(1), 19A-24A. https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.68.1.19A
Amede, T., Menza, M., & Awlachew, S. B. (2011). Zai improves nutrient and water productivity in the ethiopian Highlands. Experimental Agriculture, 47(S1), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479710000803
Banwart, S. (2011). Save our soils. Nature, 474, 151-152. https://doi.org/10.1038/474151a
Barnabas, B., Jäger, K., & Fehér, A. (2008). The effect of drought and heat stress on reproductive processes in cereals. Plant, Cell & Environment, 31(1), 11-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01727.x
Barnwal, P., Devika, S., Singh, S., Behera, T., Chourasia, A., Pramanick, B., Meena, V. S., & Rakshit, A. (2021). Soil fertility management in organic farming. In V. S. Meena, S. K. Meena, A. Rakshit, J. Stanley & C. Srinivasarao (Eds.), Advances in Organic Farming (pp. 39-46) Sawston, UK: Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822358-1.00016-X
Bationo, A., Kihara, J., Waswa, B., Ouattara, B., & Vanlauwe, B. (2005). Technologies for sustainable management of sandy Sahelian soils. Management of tropical sandy soils for sustainable agriculture proceedings, 414-429.
Bationo, A., Mokwunye, U., Vlek, P. G., Kaola, S., & Shapiro, B. I. (2003). Soil fertility management for sustainable land use in West African Sudano-Sahelian zone. In Soil fertility management in Africa: A regional perspective (pp. 253-292) Nairobi, Kenya: Academic Science Publishers.
Bedada, W., Karltun, E., Lemenih, M., & Tolera, M. (2014). Long-term addition of compost and NP fertilizer increases crop yield and improves soil quality in experiments on smallholder farms. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 195, 193-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.06.017
Biazin, B., Sterk, G., Temesgen, M., Abdulkedir, A., & Stroosnijder, L. (2012). Rainwater harvesting and management in rainfed agricultural systems in sub-Saharan Africa – A review. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 47-48, 139-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2011.08.015
Blanco-Canqui, H., Shapiro, C. A., Wortmann, C. S., Drijber, R. A., Mamo, M., Shaver, T. M., & Ferguson, R. B. (2013). Soil organic carbon: The value to soil properties. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 68(5), 129A-134A. https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.68.5.129a
Boubacar, I. (2010). The effects of drought on crop yields and yield variability in Sahel. Research Papers in Economics, 1-30.
Boubacar, I. (2012). The effects of drought on crop yields and yield variability: An economic assessment. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 4(12), 51-60. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijef.v4n12p51
Butterly, C. R., Baldock, J. A., & Tang, C. (2012). The contribution of crop residues to changes in soil pH under field conditions. Plant and Soil, 366(1-2), 185-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1422-1
Carmo, D. L., Lima, L. B., & Silva, C. A. (2016a). Soil fertility and electrical conductivity are affected by organic waste rates and nutrient inputs. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, 40, e01501521. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20150152
Carmo, D. L., Silva, C. A., Lima, J. M., & Pinheiro, G. L. (2016b Electrical conductivity and chemical composition of soil solution: Comparison of solution samplers in tropical soils. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, 40, e01407951. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20140795
Chen, H., Deng, A., Zhang, W., Li, W., Qiao, Y., Yang, T., Zheng, C., Cao, C., & Chen, F. (2018). Long-term inorganic plus organic fertilization increases yield and yield stability of winter wheat. The Crop Journal, 6(6), 589-599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cj.2018.06.002
Chivenge, P., Vanlauwe, B., & Six, J. (2011). Does the combined application of organic and mineral nutrient sources influence maize productivity? A meta-analysis. Plant and Soil, 342, 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0626-5
Chivenge, P., Vanlauwe, B., Gentile, R., Wangechi, H., Mugendi, D., Van Kessel, C., & Six, J. (2009). Organic and mineral input management to enhance crop productivity in central Kenya. Agronomy Journal, 101(5), 1266-1275. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2008.0188x
Corsi, S., Friedrich, T., Kassam, A., Pisante, M., & Sà, J. D. M. (2012). Soil organic carbon accumulation and greenhouse gas emission reductions from conservation agriculture: a literature review. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
Coulibaly, A. (2018). Effect of zai pit and half-moon technologies on household income among small-scale farmers in Kita Cercle, Mali. Doctoral dissertation, Egerton University.
Danjuma, M. N., & Mohammed, S. (2015). Zai pit System: A catalyst for restoration in the dry lands. Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 8(2), 1-4.
Daryanto, S., Wang, L., & Jacinthe, P.-A. (2016). Global synthesis of drought effects on maize and wheat production. PLoS One, 11(5), e0156362. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156362
Dile, Y. T., Karlberg, L., Temesgen, M., & Rockström, J. (2013). The role of water harvesting to achieve sustainable agricultural intensification and resilience against water related shocks in sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 181, 69-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.09.014
Diop, M., Chirinda, N., Beniaich, A., El Gharous, M., & El Mejahed, K. (2022). Soil and water conservation in Africa: State of play and potential role in tackling soil degradation and building soil health in agricultural lands. Sustainability, 14(20), 13425. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013425
Dunjana, N., Nyamugafata, P., Shumba, A., Nyamangara, J., & Zingore, S. (2012). Effects of cattle manure on selected soil physical properties of smallholder farms on two soils of Murewa, Zimbabwe. Soil Use and Management, 28(2), 221-228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2012.00394.x
Elemike, E. E., Uzoh, I. M., Onwudiwe, D. C., & Babalola, O. O. (2019). The role of nanotechnology in the fortification of plant nutrients and improvement of crop production. Applied Sciences, 9(3), 499. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9030499
Fahad, S., Bajwa, A. A., Nazir, U., Anjum, S. A., Farooq, A., Zohaib, A., Sadia, S., Nasim, W., Adkins, S., Saud, S., Ihsan, M. Z., Alharby, H., Wu, C., Wang, D., & Huang, J. (2017). Crop production under drought and heat stress: plant responses and management options. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 1147. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01147
Fairhurst, T. (2012). Introduction. In Africa Soil Health Consortium: Handbook for integrated soil fertility management (pp. 1-4). CABI. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781780642857.0001
Fatondji, D., Martius, C., Zougmore, R., Vlek, P. L. G., Bielders, C. L., & Koala, S. (2009). Decomposition of organic amendment and nutrient release under the zai technique in the Sahel. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 85, 225-239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-009-9261-z
Gebru, G. W., Ichoku, H. E., & Phil-Eze, P. O. (2020). Determinants of smallholder farmers' adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change in Eastern Tigray National Regional State of Ethiopia. Heliyon, 6(7), e04356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04356
Gicheru, P. (2012). An overview of soil fertility management, maintenance, and productivity in Kenya. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 58(sup1), S22-S32. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2012.693599
Girma, T., Beyene, S., Lemaga, B., & Temesgen, B. B. (2020). Integrated application of organic and blended mineral fertilizers improves potato productivity and income for smallholder farmers in acidic soils. Environment and Natural Resources Research, 10(1), 61-70. https://doi.org/10.5539/enrr.v10n1p61
Haddaway, N. R., Hedlund, K., Jackson, L. E., Kätterer, T., Lugato, E., Thomsen, I. K., Jørgensen, H. B., & Söderström, B. (2015). What are the effects of agricultural management on soil organic carbon in boreo-temperate systems?. Environmental Evidence, 4, 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-015-0049-0
Hatfield, J. L., Antle, J., Garrett, K. A., Izaurralde, R. C., Mader, T., Marshall, E., Nearing, M., Robertson, G. P., & Ziska, L. (2020). Indicators of climate change in agricultural systems. Climatic Change, 163, 1719-1732. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2222-2
Hatibu, N., Mutabazi, K., Senkondo, E. M., & Msangi, A. (2006). Economics of rainwater harvesting for crop enterprises in semi-arid areas of East Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 80(1-3), 74-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.005
Hobbs, P. R., Sayre, K., & Gupta, R. (2011). The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 363(1491), 543-555. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2169
Huho, J. M., & Mugalavai, E. M. (2010). The effects of droughts on food security in Kenya. The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses, 2(2), 61-72. https://doi.org/10.18848/1835-7156/cgp/v02i02/37312
Iqbal, M. S., Singh, A. K., & Ansari, M. I. (2020). Effect of drought stress on crop production. In A. Rakshit, H. B. Singh, A. K. Singh, U. S. Singh & L. Fraceto (Eds.), New Frontiers in Stress Management for Durable Agriculture (pp. 35-47) Singapore: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1322-0_3
Kalungu, J. W., Filho, W. L., Mbuge, D. O., & Cheruiyot, H. K. (2015). Assessing the impact of Rainwater HarvestingRainwater harvesting technology as adaptation strategy for rural communities in Makueni County, Kenya. In W. L. Filho (Eds.), Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation (pp. 1615-1634) Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38670-1_23
Kar, R., Bindroo, B. B., Ghosh, M. K., & Majumder, S. K. (2013). Carbon credit in soil under a long-term fertilizer experiment on mulberry. Nature and science, 11(3), 77-82.
Kathuli, P., & Itabari, J. K. (2014). In-situ soil moisture conservation: Utilisation and management of rainwater for crop production. International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology, 10(3), 295. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijarge.2014.064009
Kearney, S., Fonte, S. J., Salomon, A., Six, J., & Scow, K. M. (2012). Forty percent revenue increase by combining organic and mineral nutrient amendments in Ugandan smallholder market vegetable production. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 32(4), 831-839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-012-0097-6
Kebede, E. (2020). Grain legumes production and productivity in Ethiopian smallholder agricultural system, contribution to livelihoods and the way forward. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 6(1), 1722353. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1722353
Kiggundu, N., Wanyama, J., Mfitumukiz, D., Twinomuhangi, R., Barasa, B., Katimbo, A., & Kyazze, F. (2018). Rainwater harvesting knowledge and practice for agricultural production in a changing climate: A review from Uganda’s perspective. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 20(2), 19-36.
Kihara, J., Nziguheba, G., Zingore, S., Coulibaly, A., Esilaba, A., Kabambe, V. Njoroge, N., Palm, C., & Huising, J. (2016). Understanding variability in crop response to fertilizer and amendments in sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 229, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.05.012
Kihara, J., Sileshi, G. W., Nziguheba, G., Kinyua, M., Zingore, S., & Sommer, R. (2017). Application of secondary nutrients and micronutrients increases crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37, 25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-017-0431-0
Kim, W., Iizumi, T., & Nishimori, M. (2019). Global patterns of crop production losses associated with droughts from 1983 to 2009. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 58(6), 1233-1244.
Kimaru, S. W. (2017). Zai Pits and integrated soil fertility management enhances crop yields in the drier parts of Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. Doctoral dissertation, Kenyatta University.
Kimaru-Muchai, S. W., Ngetich, F. K., Baaru, M., & Mucheru-Muna, M. W. (2020). Adoption and utilisation of Zai pits for improved farm productivity in drier upper Eastern Kenya. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, 121(1), 13-22. https://doi.org/10.17170/kobra-202002281030
Kimaru-Muchai, S. W., Ngetich, F. K., Mucheru-Muna, M. W., & Baaru, M. (2021). Zai pits for heightened sorghum production in drier parts of Upper Eastern Kenya. Heliyon, 7(9), e08005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08005
King, E. G., Unks, R. R., & German, L. (2018). Constraints and capacities for novel livelihood adaptation: lessons from agricultural adoption in an African dryland pastoralist system. Regional Environmental Change, 18, 1403-1410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1270-x
Kogo, B. K., Kumar, L., & Koech, R. (2021). Climate change and variability in Kenya: a review of impacts on agriculture and food security. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23, 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00589-1
Kugedera, A. T., Nyamadzawo, G., Mandumbu, R., & Nyamangara, J. (2022). Potential of field edge rainwater harvesting, biomass transfer and integrated nutrient management in improving sorghum productivity in semi-arid regions: a review. Agroforestry Systems, 96, 909-924.
Kuyah, S., Sileshi, G. W., Nkurunziza, L., Chirinda, N., Ndayisaba, P. C., Dimobe, K., & Öborn, I. (2021). Innovative agronomic practices for sustainable intensification in sub-Saharan Africa. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 41, 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-021-00673-4
Lahmar, R., Bationo, B. A., Lamso, N. D., Guero, Y., & Tittonell, P. (2012). Tailoring conservation agriculture technologies to West Africa semi-arid zones: building on traditional local practices for soil restoration. Field Crops Research, 132, 158-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2011.09.013
Langridge, P., & Reynolds, M. (2021). Breeding for drought and heat tolerance in wheat. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 134, 1753-1769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-021-03795-1
Lei, Z., Yu, D., Zhou, F., Zhang, Y., Yu, D., Zhou, Y., & Han, Y. (2019). Changes in soil organic carbon and its influencing factors in the growth of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica plantation in Horqin Sandy Land, Northeast China. Scientific Reports, 9, 16453. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52945-5
Lesk, C., Rowhani, P., & Ramankutty, N. (2016). Influence of extreme weather disasters on global crop production. Nature, 529, 84-87. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16467
Liang, X.-Z., Wu, Y., Chambers, R. G., Schmoldt, D. L., Gao, W., Liu, C., Liu, Y.-A., Sun, C. & Kennedy, J. A. (2017). Determining climate effects on US total agricultural productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(12), E2285-E2292. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1615922114
Liang, X., & van Dijk, M. P. (2011). Economic and financial analysis on rainwater harvesting for agricultural irrigation in the rural areas of Beijing. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 55(11), 1100-1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.06.009
Liu, X., Han, X., Song, C., Herbert, S. J., & Xing, B. (2003). Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics in Black Soils of China under Different Agricultural Management Systems. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 34(7-8), 973-984. https://doi.org/10.1081/CSS-120019103
Liu, X., Pan, Y., Zhu, X., Yang, T., Bai, J., & Sun, Z. (2018). Drought evolution and its impact on the crop yield in the North China Plain. Journal of Hydrology, 564, 984-996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.07.077
Liu, L., Li, C., Zhu, S., Xu, Y., Li, H., Zheng, X., & Shi, R. (2020). Combined application of organic and inorganic nitrogen fertilizers affects soil prokaryotic communities' compositions. Agronomy, 10(1), 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10010132
Lobell, D. B., Schlenker, W., & Costa-Roberts, J. (2011). Climate trends and global crop production since 1980. Science, 333(6042), 616-620. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204531
Lutta, A. I., Wasonga, O. V., Nyangito, M. M., Sudan, F. K., & Robinson, L. W. (2020). Adoption of water harvesting technologies among agro-pastoralists in semi-arid rangelands of South Eastern Kenya. Environmental Systems Research, 9, 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-020-00202-4
Mati, B. M. (2006). Overview of water and soil nutrient management under smallholder rain-fed agriculture in East Africa. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.
Matusso, J. M. M., Mugwe, J. N., & Mucheru-Muna, M. (2014). Effects of different maize (Zea mays L.) soybean (Glycine Max (L.) Merrill) intercropping patterns on soil mineral-N, N-uptake and soil properties. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 9(1), 42-55. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajar2013.7178
Mazvimavi, K., & Towmlow, S. (2008). Socio economic Factors Influencing Adoption of Conservation Farming by Vulnerable Households in Zimbabwe. Bulawayo, Zimbabwe: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Mi, W., Sun, Y., Xia, S., Zhao, H., Mi, W., Brookes, P. C., Liu, Y., & Wu, L. (2018). Effect of inorganic fertilizers with organic amendments on soil chemical properties and rice yield in a low-productivity Paddy soil. Geoderma, 320, 23-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.01.016
Miller, J., Beasley, B., Drury, C., Larney, F., & Hao, X. (2016). Surface soil salinity and soluble salts after 15 applications of composted or stockpiled manure with straw or wood chips. Compost Science & Utilization, 25(1), 36-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2016.1176968
Morton, J. F. (2007). The impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 19680-19685. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701855104
Motis, T., D’Aiuto, C., & Lingbeek, B. (2013). Zai Pit System. Technical Note #78, ECHO.
Mrunalini, K., Behera, B., Jayaraman, S., Abhilash, P. C., Dubey, P. K., Swamy, G. N., Prasad, J. V. N. S., Rao, K. V., Krishnan, P., Pratibha, G., & Rao, C. S. (2022). Nature‐based solutions in soil restoration for improving agricultural productivity. Land Degradation & Development, 33(8), 1269-1289.
Mucheru-Muna, M., Mugendi, D., Kung’u, J., Mugwe, J., & Bationo, A. (2007). Effects of organic and mineral fertilizer inputs on maize yield and soil chemical properties in a maize cropping system in Meru South District, Kenya. Agroforestry Systems, 69(3), 189-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-006-9027-4
Mucheru-Muna, M., Mugendi, D., Pypers, P., Mugwe, J., Kung'u, J., Vanlauwe, B., & Merckx, R. (2014). Enhancing maize productivity and profitability using organic inputs and mineral fertilizer in central Kenya small-hold farms. Experimental Agriculture, 50(2), 250-269. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479713000525
Mucheru-Muna, M., Pypers, P., Mugendi, D., Kung’u, J., Mugwe, J., Merckx, R., & Vanlauwe, B. (2010). A staggered maize–legume intercrop arrangement robustly increases crop yields and economic returns in the Highlands of central Kenya. Field Crops Research, 115(2), 132-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2009.10.013
Muchiri, P. M., Ogara, W. O., Karanja, F. K., & Maweu, J. M. (2020). A climate-smart agriculture approach using double digging, Zai pits and Aquacrop model in rain-fed sorghum cultivation at Wiyumiririe location of Laikipia County, Kenya. Africa Journal of Physical Sciences, 4, 23-53.
Mugwe, J., Mugendi, D., Mucheru-Muna, M., Odee, D., & Mairura, F. (2009). Effect of selected organic materials and inorganic fertilizer on the soil fertility of a humic Nitisol in the central Highlands of Kenya. Soil Use and Management, 25(4), 434-440. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2009.00244.x
Muriuki, J. P. (2009). An evaluation of organic and inorganic inputs for soil nutrient replenishment in Mukuuni and Murugi, Central Kenya. MSc Thesis, Kenyatta University.
Ndeke, A. M., Mugwe, J. N., Mogaka, H., Nyabuga, G., Kiboi, M., Ngetich, F., Mucheru-Muna, M., Sijali, I., & Mugendi, D. (2021). Gender-specific determinants of Zai technology use intensity for improved soil water management in the drylands of Upper Eastern Kenya. Heliyon, 7(6), e07217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07217
Njeru, P. N. M., Maina, I., Miruka, M., Amboga, J. S., Gitari, J., Rono, B., Mahasi, M., & Murithi, F. (2011). Soil fertility characterization of small holder farms under group and individual management in Central Kenya. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, 10, 621-624.
Nyagumbo, I., Mutenje, M., Setimela, P., Chipindu, L., Chisaka, A., Simwaka, P., Mwale, B., Ngwira, A., & Mupangwa, W. (2022). Evaluating the merits of climate smart technologies under smallholder agriculture in Malawi. Soil Use and Management, 38(1), 890-906. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12715
Nyang'au, J. O., Mohamed, J. H., Mango, N., Makate, C., & Wangeci, A. N. (2021). Smallholder farmers’ perception of climate change and adoption of climate smart agriculture practices in Masaba South Sub-county, Kisii, Kenya. Heliyon, 7(4), e06789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06789
Ojiem, J., Franke, A. C., Vanlauwe, B., de Ridder, N., & Giller, K. E. (2014). Benefits of legume–maize rotations: Assessing the impact of diversity on the productivity of smallholders in western Kenya. Field Crops Research, 168, 75-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2014.08.004
Olarinde, L. O., Oduol, J. B., Binam, J. N., Diagne, A., Njuki, J., & Adekunle, A. A. (2012). Impact of the adoption of soil and water conservation practices on crop production: Baseline evidence of the Sub-saharan Africa Challenge programme. American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 12(3), 293-305.
Omara, P., Aula, L., & Raun, W. R. (2019). Nitrogen Uptake Efficiency and Total Soil Nitrogen Accumulation in Long-Term Beef Manure and Inorganic FertilizerApplication. International Journal of Agronomy, 2019, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/9594369
Opala, P. A., Okalebo, J. R., & Othieno, C. (2013). Comparison of effects of phosphorus sources on soil acidity, available phosphorus and maize yields at two sites in western Kenya. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 59(3), 327-339. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2011.627681
Pal, A., Adhikary, R., Barman, S., & Maitra, S. (2020). Nitrogen transformation and losses in soil: A cost-effective review study for farmer. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(3), 2623-2626. https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i3al.9609
Pasley, H. R., Cairns, J. E., Camberato, J. J., & Vyn, T. J. (2019). Nitrogen fertilizer rate increases plant uptake and soil availability of essential nutrients in continuous maize production in Kenya and Zimbabwe. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 115, 373-389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-019-10016-1
Patle, G. T., Kumar, M., & Khanna, M. (2020). Climate-smart water technologies for sustainable agriculture: A review. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 11(4), 1455-1466. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2019.257
Rajsekhar, D., & Gorelick, S. M. (2017). Increasing drought in Jordan: Climate change and cascading Syrian land-use impacts on reducing transboundary flow. Science Advances, 3(8), e1700581. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700581
Renard, D., Mahaut, L., & Noack, F. (2023). Crop diversity buffers the impact of droughts and high temperatures on food production. Environmental Research Letters, 18(4), 045002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acc2d6
Samarah, N. H. (2005). Effects of drought stress on growth and yield of barley. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 25(1), 145-149.
Satyanarayana, V., Prasad, P. V. V., Murthy, V. R K., & Boote, K. J. (2002). Influence of integrated use of farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizers on yield and yield components of irrigated lowland rice. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 25(10), 2081-2090. https://doi.org/10.1081/pln-120014062
Sawadogo, H. (2011). Using soil and water conservation techniques to rehabilitate degraded lands in northwestern Burkina Faso. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9(1), 120-128. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0552
Shah, F., & Wu, W. (2019). Soil and crop management strategies to ensure higher crop productivity within sustainable environments. Sustainability, 11(5), 1485. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051485
Silva, J. A., & Uchida, R. S. (2000). Plant nutrient management in Hawaii’s soils, approaches for tropical and sub-tropical agriculture. University of Hawaii at Manoa: College of tropical agriculture and human resources.
Smith, J. U., Fischer, A., Hallett, P. D., Homans, H. Y., Smith, P., Abdul-Salam, Y., Emmerling, H. H., & Phimister, E. (2015). Sustainable use of organic resources for bioenergy, food and water provision in rural Sub-Saharan Africa. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50, 903-917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.071
Thimmaiah, M., Kumar, M. D., Nandish, M. S., & Veeranna, H. K. (2016). Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth, yield and economics of rain-fed finger millet. International Journal of Applied Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, 7(4), 875-879.
Timsina, J. (2018). Can organic sources of nutrients increase crop yields to meet global food demand?. Agronomy, 8(10), 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy8100214
Tittonell, P., Shepherd, K. D., Vanlauwe, B., & Giller, K. E. (2008). Unraveling the effects of soil and crop management on maize productivity in small holder agricultural systems of western Kenya—An application of classification and regression tree analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 123(1-3), 137-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2007.05.005
Troy, T. J., Kipgen, C., & Pal, I. (2015). The impacts of climate extremes and irrigation on US crop yields. Environment Research Letters, 10, 054013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/5/054013
Vanlauwe, B., Bationo, A., Chianu, J., Giller, K. E., Merckx, R., Mokwunye, U., Ohiokpehai, O., Pypers, P., Tabo, R., Shepherd, K. D., Smaling, E. M. A., Woomer, P. L., & Sanginga, N. (2010). Integrated Soil Fertility Management: Operational Definition and Consequences for Implementation and Dissemination. Outlook on Agriculture, 39(1), 17-24. https://doi.org/10.5367/000000010791169998
Vanlauwe, B., Descheemaeker, K., Giller, K. E., Huising, J., Merckx, R., Nziguheba, G., Wendt, J., & Zingore, S. (2015). Integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: Unravelling local adaptation. Soil, 1(1), 491-508. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-491-2015
Vanlauwe, B., Hungriab, M., Kanampiua, F., & Giller, K. E. (2019). The role of legumes in the sustainable intensification of African smallholder agriculture: Lessons learnt and challenges for the future. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 284, 106583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106583
Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Gouveia, C., Camarero, J. J., Begueria, S., Trigo, R., Lopez-Moreno, J. I., Azorin-Molina, C., Pasho, E., Lorenzo-Lacruz, J., Revuelto, J., Moran-Tejeda, E., & Sanchez-Lorenzo, A. (2012). Response of vegetation to drought time-scales across global land biomes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(1), 52-57. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207068110
Wawire, A. W., Csorba, Á., Tóth, J. A., Michéli, E., Szalai, M., Mutuma, E., & Kovács, E. (2021). Soil fertility management among smallholder farmers in Mount Kenya East region. Heliyon, 7(3), e06488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06488
Wildemeersch, J. C. J., Garba, M., Sabiou, M., Sleutel, S., & Cornelis, W. (2015). The effect of water and soil conservation (WSC) on the soil chemical, biological, and physical quality of a Plinthosol in Niger. Land Degradation & Development, 26(7), 773-783. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2416
Wouterse, F. (2017). Empowerment, climate change adaptation, and agricultural production: Evidence from Niger. Climatic Change, 145(3-4), 367-382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-2096-8
Yegon, R., Mtakwa, P. W., Mrema, G. C., & Ngetich, F. K. (2016). Planting pits’ effects on soil nutrients in a sorghum and pigeon pea rotation in semi-arid areas of eastern Kenya. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, 13(5), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/2016/30127
Zhang, X., Zhu, A., Xin, X., Yang, W., Zhang, J., & Ding, S. (2018). Tillage and residue management for long-term wheat-maize cropping in the North China Plain: I. Crop yield and integrated soil fertility index. Field Crops Research, 221, 157-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2018.02.025
Zhou, H., Fang, H., Mooney, S. J., & Peng, X. (2016). Effects of long-term inorganic and organic fertilizations on the soil micro and macro structures of rice paddies. Geoderma, 266, 66-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.12.007
Zingore, S., Murwira, H. K., Delve, R. J., & Giller, K. E. (2008). Influence of nutrient management strategies on variability of soil fertility, crop yields and nutrient balances on small holder farms in Zimbabwe. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 119(1-2), 112- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.06.019
Zipper, S. C., Qiu, J., & Kucharik, C. J. (2016). Drought effects on US maize and soybean production: spatiotemporal patterns and historical changes. Environmental Research Letters, 11(9), 094021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094021
Zougmoré, R., Jalloh, A., & Tioro, A. (2014). Climate-smart soil water and nutrient management options in semiarid West Africa: a review of evidence and analysis of stone bunds and Zai techniques. Agriculture & Food Security, 3, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-3-16
Zougmoré, R., Zida, Z., & Kambou, N. (2003). Role of nutrient amendments in the success of half-moon soil and water conservation practice in semiarid Burkina Faso. Soil and Tillage Research, 71(2), 143-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(03)00050-3
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2024 Ednah Kerubo Getare, Monicah Mucheru-Mucheru-Muna, Felista Muriu-Ng'anga
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License.
.